Benin

Greenhouse gas emissions are the main contributor of climate change, and are thus an important indicator of a food system's contribution to climate change. In addition, greenhouse gases from transforming land (clearing, burning, or otherwise removing existing vegetation) for agricultural use are a large source of food system greenhouse gas emissions. Climate change is associated with increased land surface temperature, extreme weather events, rising sea levels, and other changes to the environment. These changes may impact the quality, quantity, and safety of our food supply.

Income inequality can be both a driver and a consequence of the food system. As a driver, inequality can play into food production systems, the food environment, and individual factors that influence access to food. However, a food system can also contribute to income inequality through skewed distribution of the value of food across the supply chain (producers assume more risk and less of the revenue than distributors or retailers).

Urbanization can be a challenge to the food system, as with increased proportion of people living in urban areas, food production is at risk of declining, especially on low- and middle-sized farms. Urban areas demand high penetration of food distribution and retail.

Population growth is relevant as it speaks to how fast a population is changing, what the age profile of the population is, and gives clues to the age-dependency ratio. A fast growing population also means pressure on the food system to continue increasing supply to meet the demands of a larger population.

Gender inequality can be related to inequitable food allocation within the household. It can also impact the societal roles of men and women as it relates to agricultural production, food processing, and engagement with the food environment.

This indicator provides a measure of the relative importance of a country's agriculture sector for employment. As a country's income increases, it's share of employment in agriculture tends to decrease, also reflecting the availability of non-farm employment opportunities.

Higher crop species richness and diversity are associated with several positive outcomes for production (yield stability, reduced pest and disease outbreaks, higher pollinator diversity) and for the environment (higher insect and bird richness and abundance, higher soil biodiversity). This indicator can be used to identify crops grown in areas with very low versus very high numbers of different crops within a 10x10 km area. Countries with lower average crop richness are likely to be growing in simplified farms and landscapes (monoculture systems) while countries with crop richness tending towards 42 are likely to be growing in multifunctional farms and landscapes. Note that the scale of the data (10x10 km) means that many small farms all producing different crops in monocultures will likely result in higher crop richness or diversity scores than several large farms using intercrop or crop rotation systems. There is no clear scientific consensus on a target crop richness to ensure sustainable production systems. A global target of 15 crops per 10x10km should be attainable for all cropland and could be used as a threshold across all commodities.

Yields measure the efficiency with which inputs are used to produce agricultural output. Improving production efficiency is considered a critical path to meet food and nutrition security needs of current and future generations. The yields data, subtracted from consumptive need can serve as an indicator of coherence between sustainable production and healthy consumption targets.

Yields measure the efficiency with which inputs are used to produce agricultural output. Improving production efficiency is considered a critical path to meet food and nutrition security needs of current and future generations. The yields data, subtracted from consumptive need can serve as an indicator of coherence between sustainable production and healthy consumption targets.

Food losses affect the quantity and quality of food that is available for consumption, and may compromise gains in production that would otherwise improve food security and nutrition outcomes, as well as the incomes of farmers and other value chain actors.

Food losses affect the quantity and quality of food that is available for consumption, and may compromise gains in production that would otherwise improve food security and nutrition outcomes, as well as the incomes of farmers and other value chain actors. Food losses are especially high for perishable foods such as fruits and vegetables in countries with tropical climates, where means of storage and transport (refrigeration) are inadequate or supply chains are fragmented.

Food losses affect the quantity and quality of food that is available for consumption, and may compromise gains in production that would otherwise improve food security and nutrition outcomes, as well as the incomes of farmers and other value chain actors. Food losses are especially high for perishable foods such as fruits and vegetables in countries with tropical climates, where means of storage and transport (refrigeration) are inadequate or supply chains are fragmented.

Food losses affect the quantity and quality of food that is available for consumption, and may compromise gains in production that would otherwise improve food security and nutrition outcomes, as well as the incomes of farmers and other value chain actors.

This indicator gives a sense of if a country has sufficient food to meet population-level energy (caloric) needs. However, it does not take into consideration the distribution and access to this dietary energy among different population subgroups, nor the varying levels of energy needs that exist among these groups.

Countries with lower shares of dietary energy from staple foods may have higher nutritional quality in their food supplies. As non-staple foods--which are typically more nutrient-dense than cereals, roots and tubers--increase in availability, country-level food supplies are more capable of meeting population-level nutrient needs. However, this does not consider the distribution of these foods to population sub-groups, including nutritionally vulnerable groups whose needs may be higher, or low-income groups who may have difficulty affording non-staple foods.

Availability of pulses in the national food supply is a precursor to consumption of pulses, a component of WHO's recommended healthy diet. Note that this indicator does not consider differences in access and affordability of pulses among population subgroups.

Availability of eggs in the national food supply is a precursor to consumption of eggs. Eggs are rich in essential fatty acids and micronutrients, including vitamins A and B12, iron, zinc, and iodine, and egg consumption has been associated with improved growth among young children (Ionatti et al. 2017). Note that this indicator does not consider differences in access and affordability of eggs among population subgroups.

Availability of meat in the national food supply is a precursor to consumption of meat. Many high-income countries consume meat in excess, while food insecure populations in low- and middle-income countries consume very small amounts. Meat may be an important source of micronutrients for nutritionally vulnerable groups. Note that this indicator does not consider differences in access and affordability of meat among population subgroups.

Availability of fish in the national food supply is a precursor to consumption of fish. Fish may provide an important source of nutrients in low- and middle-income countries, as well as high-income countries. Note that this indicator does not consider differences in access and affordability of fish among population subgroups. Fish are less harmful to the environment as compared to ruminant meat. Increased importance is now placed on sustainable aquaculture and avoidance of overfishing of captured fish.

Provides the cost of adequate calories for energy balance at a given level of physical activity and body size, using only the least-cost starchy staple in each country.

The cost of food can present a significant barrier to consumption of nutritious diets by restricting economic access to nutritious food. This indicator compares CoNA to the average amount per person that households in a country typically spend on food. Affordability can be limited by high prices, low income, or both. This indicator shows that CoNA is higher than average household food expenditure in many countries.

Used to demonstrate the actual cost of healthy diets, in comparison to a low-cost food group.

Shows the cost of the lowest cost set of foods that would meet requirements for food-based dietary guidelines, in comparison to total food budget. As the ratio approaches 1, the more unaffordable the healthy diet. As the ratio approaches 0, the more affordable the healthy diet.

A healthy diet is considered unaffordable in a country when its cost exceeds 52 percent of income per capita per day. This percentage accounts for a portion of income that can be credibly reserved for food, based on observations that the population in low-income countries spend, on average, 52 percent of their income on food, as derived from the 2017 national accounts household expenditure data of the World Bank's International Comparison Programme (ICP). Income data are provided by the World Bank’s Poverty and Inequality Platform. A value of zero indicates a null or a small number rounded down at the current precision level.

Shows the relative cost of the recommended amount per day of legumes, nuts, and seeds compared to the recommended amount per day of starchy staples. A ratio greater than 1 indicates a high-cost food group. A ratio less than 1 indicates the food group costs less than the cost of starchy staples.

Shows the relative cost of the recommended amount per day of fruit and vegetables compared to the recommended amount per day of starchy staples. A ratio greater than 1 indicates a high-cost food group. A ratio less than 1 indicates the food group costs less than the cost of starchy staples.

Packaged food sales may provide an idea of the availability and demand for processed foods in a country. Packaged foods often have a longer shelf-life, fewer issues with food safety, and added convenience for people. For example, canned vegetables may enhance yearlong access in areas where local production is low or highly seasonal. On the other hand, many packaged and processed foods are energy dense and high in added sugar, salt, and fats (see ultra-processed food sales).

This indicator proxies the availability of UPFs, defined as foods made of mostly industrial ingredients and additives with minimal amounts of unprocessed foods. These additives are not naturally occurring in the food but are added in the processing phase in order to increase palatability and shelf life. Examples of UPFs include sweet and savory snacks, instant noodles, confectionery, meat substitutes, and soft drinks, among others.

Supermarkets increase people's physical and economic access to a wide variety of foods, including both fresh and processed foods. Supermarket chains typically begin with market advantages in dry and packaged foods, though eventually expand to fresh foods. Supermarkets require high standards in food quality and safety and often put in place dedicated supply chains. They bring opportunities as well as competition for local farmers and traditional retailers.

Modern grocery store retailers increase people's physical and economic access to a wide variety of foods, including both fresh and processed foods. They also create opportunity and competition for local farmers and traditional food retailers.

Final consumption expenditure provides an approximate measure of income and consumer spending power, which impacts the affordability of foods and consumer behavior.

This account-based system of indicators facilitates the quantification of natural resources appropriated by the production or consumption choices across countries.

This account-based system of indicators facilitates the quantification of natural resources appropriated by the production or consumption choices across countries.

Greenhouse gas emissions cause climate change, which drives wide-ranging negative impacts on the environment (global warming, sea level rise, extreme weather events) and for human health. Food production and livestock directly contribute to emissions, in addition to indirectly contributing to emissions through land use change.

Large biodiversity losses associated with dietary choices may signify a higher potential for dietary shifts to preserve biodiversity, which is necessary for the stability of ecosystems and resilience of food production systems.

Countries experiencing high water stress associated with dietary choices may have larger potential for dietary shifts to improve water-use efficiency.

Excess fertilizer application during food production can lead to runoff into streams and rivers and subsequent eutrophication of freshwater and marine ecosystems. Eutrophication leads to fish dieback from lack of oxygen and other environmental harms.

This indicates agricultural land dynamics, which can affect food supply and environmental quality.

Embedding at least 10% of natural and seminatural vegetation is being proposed as a planetary boundary to guarantee that agricultural lands have integrity and a minimum amount of natural capital to provide ecosystem services. Attaining 10% natural vegetation is a low target that all cropland systems must fulfill.

Countries with larger risk values suggests soil organisms are under high pressure signalling the need for changes in production systems to protect and restore soil biodiversity.

An indicator used to monitor hunger at the global and regional level. The estimate is obtained with a model that compares the distribution of habitual food consumption levels with the dietary energy

The FIES is an experience-based food security scale used to produce a measure of access to food at different levels of severity that can be compared across contexts. It relies on data obtained by asking people, directly in surveys, about the occurrence of conditions and behaviors that are known to reflect constrained access to food.

The minimum meal frequency indicator captures the caloric sufficiency of a child’s diet.

WHO guiding principles for infant and young child feeding recommend that children aged 6–23 months be fed a variety of foods to ensure that nutrient needs are met. A diet lacking in diversity can increase the risk of micronutrient deficiencies, which may have a damaging effect on children’s physical and cognitive development.

Consumption of zero vegetables or fruits is an unhealthy practice, as these food groups are recommended for IYC, and are associated with reduced risk of NCDs.

After 6 months, the WHO recommends introducing small amounts of nutrient rich foods to an infant's diet along with continued breastfeeding until two years of age. After 6 months of age, breastmilk needs to be supplemented with nutritious foods such as animal source foods to meet the nutrient needs of the child.

Adolescence is a formative time period of increasing independence where personal dietary habits and preferences are formed that may persist into adulthood. The WHO recommends daily consumption of 400 grams fruits and vegetables (https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/healthy-diet).

Adolescence is a formative time period of increasing independence where personal dietary habits and preferences are formed that may persist into adulthood. Fast food typically has more calories and less nutrients than foods cooked at the home. Excessive consumption of fast food may increase the risk of overweight and obesity.

Adolescence is a formative time period of increasing independence where personal dietary habits and preferences are formed that may persist into adulthood. Consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages such as soft drinks has been associated with increased risk of overweight and obesity.

Adults who are obese are at increased risk of diet related noncommunicable diseases and premature mortality (The Global BMI Mortality Collaboration 2016).

Wasting, or acute malnutrition, is the loss of body weight relative to height that results from inadequate nutrition and infection. Wasting increases the risk of death and disease, and is a relatively short-term condition as compared to stunting. Countries with pronounced lean seasons, in which households experience heightened food insecurity and infections, often experience seasonal fluctuations in prevalence of wasting.

Stunting, or chronic malnutrition, is the outcome of growth faltering that takes place in utero and early childhood as a result of inadequate nutrient intake and repeated bouts of infection. Stunting is largely irreversible, and in addition to suboptimal growth outcomes, it is associated with poor cognitive development, reduced productive capacity, and poor health. Stunting may also increase risk of overweight, obesity, and noncommunicable diseases later in life.

Overweight and obese children are at higher risk of obesity, high blood pressure, noncommunicable diseases, disability, and death later in life. Childhood overweight stems from an energy imbalance related to excess caloric intake and inadequate physical activity. Excess weight during adolescence may cause early puberty and longer term health consequences.

Women who are underweight may not be receiving the adequate amount of energy and macronutrients, placing them at greater risk for micronutrient deficiencies, osteoporosis, infection, and mortality. Women of reproductive age who are underweight may be at greater risk for adverse pregnancy outcomes if they become pregnant.

Animal-source foods, particularly liver; bivalves including oysters, clams, and mussels; small oily fish; and meat, leafy greens, other vegetables, and pulses are good sources of dietary iron, which prevents iron-deficiency anemia. Other causes of anemia include intestinal parasitic infections, malaria, and other nutritional deficiencies. Women's iron intake needs are greater than men's. Iron deficiency during pregnancy can result in complications for mother and fetus, including low birth weight.

High consumption of sugary foods and beverages and processed flours and starches above the recommended amounts and proportions contributes to the development of Type II diabetes.

High blood pressure or hypertension increases the risk of cardiovascular disease. High sodium intake, through consumption of salt in prepared and processed foods, and low potassium intake, which can be improved by consuming fruits and vegetables, contribute to high blood pressure (https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/healthy-diet).